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1 Social Structure

Interlocking relations (social, political, economic) that facilitate some kinds of collective behavior and impede others.  Structural arrangements are external to and impervious to individual will.

2. Economic

A term used to designate collective behaviors involving the production, and distribution and consumption of goods and services.

3. Political

Term used to designate collective behaviors involving the production, distribution and exercise of power and authority.

4. Ideology

Beliefs and convictions held by virtue of membership in a particular group (not systematic research or reasoned argument). World View.

5. Hegemonic (Dominant) Ideology

Beliefs and convictions used to (a) explain natural or social phenomena and (b) legitimate and perpetuate social inequality.

6. Ideologies of Resistance

Beliefs and convictions emerging to collectively oppose dominant ideologies.

7. Science

This term may be understood both as process and effect.  As a process science consists of systematic inquiries based on data collection, the formulation of concepts, and the testing of hypotheses.  The product of such inquiries is scientific knowledge.  In both senses, science is an open-ended process susceptible of further interrogation and refinement.  Because of that, science is antithetical to (but not immune from) ideological convictions.

8. Phenomenon

Any event observable through empirical (sensorial) means (plural: phenomena).

9. Concepts

The building blocks of theory.  Concepts are words used to designate aspects of the empirical world that would otherwise remain hidden and elusive.  Concepts guide observation and research.

10.Theory

A series of logically connected statements in a particular field of inquiry whose purpose is to describe, explain and, in some cases, predict phenomena.

11. Hypothesis

Provisional answer (to a problem or question) subject to confirmation or falsification on the basis of empirical data. A “best guess” according to Michael Burawoy.

12. Datum

Fact.  A discrete element of information used as part of a theoretical argument (plural: data).

13. Heuristic

Useful as a learning tool.

14. Teleological

Imputes a purposive design to natural or social events.

15. Epistemological

Pertaining to the roots of knowledge.

16. Empirical

Detectable through the senses.

17. Methodology

A series of calculated and sequential steps as part of a research design meant to obtain data and test hypotheses.

18. Deductive Method

A manner of reasoning that first formulates a general law and then applies it to particular cases.

19. Inductive Method

A manner of reasoning based on the cumulative observation of particular cases to arrive at generalizations.

20. Quantitative methods

As part of a research strategy, they aim to reduce observations to numerical representations susceptible of mathematical manipulation.  Quantitative operations investigate frequencies and correlations; the extent to which a particular phenomenon is present in a population or universe.  In Andrew Cherlin’s felicitous words, “quantitative methods are a mile long but an inch deep.” Survey research is an example.

21. Qualitative methods

As part of a research design, their object is to investigate (a) the sequence of events that leads to particular behavioral outcomes and (b) the meaning that social actors assign to their own actions.  In Cherlin’s words, “qualitative methods are a mile deep but only an inch long.  Ethnographic research, including face-to-face interviews, and participant observation are examples.

22. Universe

Statistical term designating the totality of events (or entities) being investigated.

23. Sample

A segment of a universe.  When the elements of a sample are randomly selected (stochastic sampling) the findings derived from the study of that sample may be generalized to the universe from which the sample was taken.

24. Random or stochastic sample

A segment of a universe whose components are selected without bias.  In other words, random sampling allows every element in the universe to face an identical probability of inclusion in the sample.

25. Culture

A term to be used with the utmost care.  The anthropological literature identifies nearly 200 ways in which this word has been used.  In the United States, “culture” is generally used to designate (a) a system of values and beliefs shared by the members of a particular group or (b) practices and behaviors distinctive of a particular group.  Way of life.

26. Ethnocentrism

The tendency to view and evaluate other cultures from the narrow viewpoint of our own way of life.  A term antithetical to objectivity.

27. Impressionism

The tendency to judge the total character and behavior of individuals or groups on the basis of  partial and/or transitory information.  A term contrary to objectivity.

28. Anomie

Term developed by Emile Durkheim to designate the “uprooting of the individual.”  Lack of social integration in the absence of accepted rules and regulations. “Declassification.”

29. Typology

An visual representation of the range of variation of phenomena studied.

30. Elective Affinity

Term proposed by Max Weber to designate the “fit” between economic systems and cultural expressions.

On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia, introduced this resolution in the Second Continental Congress proposing independence for the American colonies.

Acting under the instruction of the Virginia Convention, Richard Henry Lee on June 7, 1776, introduced a resolution in the Second Continental Congress proposing independence for the colonies. The Lee Resolution contained three parts: a declaration of independence, a call to form foreign alliances, and “a plan for confederation.” The document that is included on page 22 is the complete resolution in Richard Henry Lee’s handwriting.

On June 11, 1776, the Congress appointed three concurrent committees in response to the Lee Resolution: one to draft a declaration of independence, a second to draw up a plan “for forming foreign alliances,” and a third to “prepare and digest the form of a confederation.”

Because many members of the Congress believed action such as Lee proposed to be premature or wanted instructions from their colonies before voting, approval was deferred until July 2. On that date, Congress adopted the first part (the declaration). The affirmative votes of 12 colonies are listed at the right. New York cast no vote until the newly elected New York Convention upheld the Declaration of Independence on July 9, 1776.

The plan for making treaties was not approved until September of 1776; the plan of confederation was delayed until November of 1777.

(Information excerpted from National Archives Education Staff. The Constitution: Evolution of a Government. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 2001.)